The end of 2024 sees the 225th anniversary of Napoleon Bonaparte’s ascent to power as leader of France. The key event was the coup of 9 November 1799, or 18 Brumaire – the ‘foggy month’ in the recently adopted French revolutionary calendar. With deft use of the threat of force, the country’s leading general effectively ended a decade of continuous political upheaval.
At the time, Napoleon was the predominant figure in the Consulate, a trio of new rulers who replaced the five-man Directory, which had governed the revolutionary First Republic since 1795. He soon formalised the situation by assuming overall authority as First Consul. Despite his civilian title, Napoleon’s power ultimately rested on the backing of the military. Five years later, the Consulate would be superseded by his proclamation as Emperor of the French.
In our special feature for this issue, we mark the rise to prominence of Europe’s most remarkable conqueror. Few would dispute Napoleon’s ranking among the great commanders of history. It has been estimated that he fought some 60 battles, of which he lost only seven. He created an empire that stretched at its height from the Channel coast to the borders of Russia. In pursuit of universal empire, Napoleon bent the crowned heads of Europe to his will, took the Austrian emperor’s daughter as his second wife, and placed his own brothers on the thrones of Naples, Spain, Westphalia, and Holland. One military historian, Martin van Creveld, has described him as ‘the most competent human being who ever lived’ – reflecting his ability to combine the direction of his country’s government with the personal control of armies on a continental scale.
It was an achievement which would become practically unrepeatable within a generation of Waterloo. The growing size of armies and the increasing complexity of warfare soon made it impossible for a single individual to hold all the elements of command in his own hands. Napoleon’s successors were obliged to work with semi-autonomous corps and divisional commanders. Increasingly, they delegated responsibility to a general staff, comprising specialists in different aspects of war planning and execution.
Nonetheless, Napoleon continues to offer important lessons to later military leaders. His emphasis on drawing the enemy into a decisive battle, rather than being distracted by time-consuming sieges, his development of combined arms operations and grasp of logistics – until the massive miscalculation of the 1812 Russian campaign – all repay careful study. His compelling personality and long record of success make him a continuing source of fascination more than two centuries after his death in lonely exile in the South Atlantic.
In this issue we explore, first, the part played by Napoleon’s generalship in his progress from unknown artillery officer to ruler of France. In a companion piece, we explore in depth two battles he fought in his 1796-1797 Italian campaign. The first of these, Lodi, was not a decisive engagement but played a critical role, thanks to the victor’s gifts of self-promotion, in the development of the Napoleonic legend. It was followed by the Battle of Arcola, which set the French armies finally on the road to victory in Italy.
These two articles are the first in a short series devoted to the career of this extraordinary individual. In the next issue of MHM, we analyse the reasons for the remarkable run of victories achieved by Napoleon between 1800 and 1809 – a period that saw him overcome the armies of Prussia, Austria, and Russia, and dictate terms to his defeated opponents. In his triumph, however, were sown the seeds of his eventual decline and fall. Our final article will focus on the years 1810-1815, when imperial overstretch and overweening ambition, combined with his foes’ ability to learn from their earlier reverses, finally sealed Napoleon’s fate.
This is an extract from a special feature on Napoleon from the October/November 2024 issue of Military History Matters magazine.
Read the full article online on The Past, or in the print magazine: find out more about subscriptions to Military History Matters here.
